I have been conducting leadership and stress management training for some years in a number of countries including the UK, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Russia, The USA, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Israel, and about 15 other countries as well as with nationals from many more in international organisations. I have found that while it may be common to talk of “effective stress management” or “good leadership” these terms are almost meaningless without first asking “where is the stress or leadership training occurring?” or more accurately “where are the delegates from, where do they live and what cultures have they been exposed to and adapted to?” When considering stress management or leadership taking culture into account is vital. While this concern was once just for those who travelled or worked with ex-pats, the increasingly international nature of many modern organisations means this article will be useful for almost any HR professional today.
Cultures are complex and generalisations can be dangerous, there are however some variables which are useful to consider. Here are some of the factors I’ve some across in my own training experience. My thinking about them has been influenced by the studies and writing of Geert Hofstede and others. Where I give examples of individual counties please note that there are wide variations within countries and sub-cultures, age-groups and individual organisational cultures also need to be taken into account. The US may be more individual and China more communal for example but there are very communal companies in parts of the US and young Chinese people may be more individually orientated than older ones.
I, We and It
For a person not be resilient to stress and demonstrate leadership they need to look after and balance themselves (I), their relationships (we) and the task they are doing (it). This model, versions of which can be found in the writing of both John Adair and Ken Wilder, is not culturally neutral however as different places will place different emphasis on these aspects of life. Some countries are more about the individual’s thoughts and feelings, some focus on social bonds and groups and some of what needs to be done. Of course they are intertwined but the emphasis is different from place to place. Heroic models of individual leadership and individual resources for stress management may be more popular in “I” cultures, while distributed or situational model of leadership and ideas to boost stress-relieving social support more popular in “we” cultures.
Power
Cultures differ widely in how they relate to power and authority and this effects how stress and leadership can be trained. Some cultures are “flatter” (e.g. Sweden and Israel) and others more hierarchal (e.g. France and much of West Africa). Leadership style and training needs to adapt accordingly as while more or less hierarchical models may come into and out of vogue, they will not be accepted universally. Equally what may cause stress may be what prevents it in another culture – is it more desirable to show respect for authority or get everyone’s buy-in for example? As with all these variable, models of leaderships and stress from Western business schools may simply not work elsewhere at it is arrogant to assume they are universal and try and impose them.
Explicit or Implicit?
In some culture people say what they mean directly (e.g. the US and Netherlands) in others one has to read between the lines and context is everything (e.g. Japan and the UK). Again this changes the leadership style it is best to teach, and what causes and relieves stress.
Anxiety and Vulnerability
Another factor that differs across cultures is how people relate to anxiety, change and uncertainty. Does change cause stress or does having no change stress people out? Should a leader keep things as stable as possible or innovate? How much order is desirable? Related to this is how people are showing they’re vulnerability. In some countries it is not socially acceptable to sign-up to a stress management course as it is seen as a sign of weakness, and certainly not something a leader should ever do; while in others a leader is expected to “be human” and there is no shame in admitting you are feeling pressure.
Accountability and Time
Most leadership courses, as well as communication, time and stress management courses will pay attention to personal responsibility (self-leadership), commitments and accountability. These are seen very differently in different places however with some countries stressing what needs to be accepted (e.g. the “Insha’Allah” ethos of some Arab countries) and others what can be personally changed (the “no excuses” ethos often found in the US). How people relate to time is one example of this, and in addition what counts as late for example varies widely from perhaps 1 second in Switzerland, to an hour in Brazil, to several days in some parts of Africa depending on context of course.
Gender, Class and Ethnicity Issues
In some countries there are strong traditional gender roles which can seem strange even offensive from a Western standpoint. The way the sexes relate to each other is also vital – are men seen as protectors for example as in Russia or invulnerable providers. In some places separate stress workshops for men and women may be necessary for example to enable people to discuss all relevant issues while in others integration would help. Leadership may also be tied to class or even caste (e.g. India) or to particular ethic identities (traditionally the Amhara in Ethiopia for example).
In Conclusion
I hope this very brief survey of some of the cultural factors that differ across regions relating to stress and leadership is useful. Again, I would stress that generalisations are difficult and potentially dangerous so please hold the examples I use here very lightly.
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